Public Speaking and Oral Reporting

 MBA - MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION (MC)

PUBLIC SPEAKING AND ORAL REPORTING

INTRODUCTION

"I'll put a girdle round about the earth in forty minutes." SHAKESPEARE

(A Midsummer Night's Dream)

                        Though talking informally is common and loved by all, most people feel uncomfortable in presenting a formal speech. The hesitation is usually because of poor speaking skills. There are various occasions when one has to face public and express his/her ideas, views, opinions, etc. Public Speaking can be improved with efforts. 

                        Public speaking is a form of communication in which a person speaks fac to face with his audience. In public speaking the speaker speaks fairly in a continuous manner. Further, the focus of the event seems to be on a single product, which is the speech itself. Here is a discussion on effective public speaking and presentation of reports. 

 

Making Formal Speeches

The most difficult kind of oral communication for most people is a formal speech. Most of us feel uncomfortable speaking before others and generally do a poor job of it. But it need not be this way. With effort we can improve our speaking, we can do this by learning good speaking techniques. Then we put these techniques into practice.

Selection Of The Topic

                        Your first step in formal speech making is to determine the topic of your presentation. In some cases, you will be assigned a topic, usually one within your area of specialization. In fact, when you are asked to make a speech on a specified topic, it is likely to be because of your knowledge of it.

                        If you are not assigned a topic, you must find one on your own. In your search for a suitable topic, you will do well to be guided by three basic factors. 

• The first is your own background and knowledge. Any topic you select should be one with which you are comfortable -- one within your areas of proficiency. 
• The second is the interest of your audience. Selecting something your audience can appreciate and understand is vital to the success of your speech. 
• The third is the occasion of the speech. Is the occasion a commemoration of an historic event? A monthly meeting of an executive club? An annual meeting of an association of wrestlers? Whatever you select should fit the occasion. A speech about Japanese managment practices might be quite appropriate for the executive club members but not for the wrestlers. Your selection should be justified by all three factors.

                        After you have determined what to talk about, you should gather the information that will form the basis of your speech. In some cases, this involves searching through your mind for supporting experience or prehaps for idea development. Sometimes you will need to conduct primary research in a library or in company files. With some topics, you may need to consult colleagues or people from other companies. In short, you do whatever is necessary to get the information that will form the basis of your presentation.

                        When you have all the information you need, you are ready to begin organizing your speech. Although variations are sometimes appropriate, usually you should follow the time-honoured order of a speech: introduction, body, and conclusion -- the same indirect order used in some reports. It is described in following paragraphs.

                        Although not really a part of the speech, the first words usually spoken are the greeting. Your greeting, of course, should fit the audience. "Ladies and Gentlemen" is appropriate for a mixed audience. "Gentlemen" fits an all-male audience; and "My Fellow Rotarians" fits an audience of Rotary Club members. Some speakers eliminate the greeting and begin directly with the speech, especially in more informal and technical presentations.

                        The introduction of a speech has much the same goal as the introduction of a written report : to prepare the listener to receive the message. But the introduction of a speech usually has the additional requirement of arousing interest. Unless you can arouse interest at the your beginning, your presentation is likely to fail. The situation is somewhat like that of the sales letter. At least some of the people with whom you want to communicate are unlikely to be interested in receiving your message. As you will see when you review the material on listening, it is very easy to lose the listener's attention in a speech situation. To prove the point, ask yourself how many times your mind has drifted from a speakers words. There is no question about it: you, the speaker, must work to gain and hold audience's interest

                        The techniques of attracting interest are limited only by the imagination. In some cases, beginning with a human-interest story may be successful, for story telling has strong appeal. Humour is another possibility and is probably the most widely used technique. Yet another technique is the startling statement -----presenting facts and ideas that awaken the mind. Whatever you choose should meet one additional requirement. It should lead to, or set up, the theme of the speech. In other words, there should be a close tie-in between the opening interest-gaining remarks and the subject of the speech.

                        Following the interest-gaining opening, it is appropriate to state the subject (theme) of your speech. In fact, when your audience already is interested in what you have to say, you can begin here and skip the attention-gaining opening. Presentations of technical topics to technical audiences typically begin this way. Whether you lead to a statement of your topic or begin with it, your statement should be clear and complete.

                        Organizing the body of your speech is much like organizing the body of a report. You take the whole and divide it into comparable parts. Then you take these parts and divide them. You continue to divide as far as it is practical to do so. In speeches, however, you are more likely to use factors as the basis of division than time, place, or quantity. The reason is that in most speeches your presentation is likely to build around issues and questions that are subtopics of the subject. These issues and questions, of course, are factors. Even so, time, place and quantity subdivisions are possibilities.

                        Like most reports, the speech usually ends with a conclusion. Here you bring all that you have presented to a head. You achieve the speech's goal. In doing this, you should consider including these three elements in your close : 

(1) a restatement of your subject 

(2) a summary of the key points developed in the presentation, and 

(3) a statement of the conclusion (or main message). 

Usually it is effective to bring the speech to a climactic close----that is, make it the high point of the speech. You can do this by presenting the concluding message in strong language, in words that will gain attention and be remembered. The following close of a speech comparing Japanese and American management techniques illustrate this point:

                        These facts make my conclusion crysual clear. Americans are not Japanese. They do not have the Japanese culture. Japanese management methods have not worked-- cannot work- will not work in American society.

Determination Of Presentation Method

                        With your speech organized, you are ready to begin preparation for presenting it. At this time, you will need to decide on your method of presentation -- whether to present it extemporaneously, by reading it, or by memorizing it.

Extemporaneous presentation

                        Extemporaneous presentation is by far the most popular and effective method. Using this method, you first thoroughly prepare your speech from them. Usually you rehearse, making sure that all parts are clearly in mind, but make no attempt to memorize. The extemporaneous method usually sounds natural to the listener, even though it is the product of careful planning and practice.

Memorized presentation

Memorized presentation is the most difficult method, atleast for most of us. Probably few speekers actually momorize an entire speech. Instead, they memorize key parts and use notes to help them through the presentation. Such deliveries actually are a cross between extemporaneous and momorized presentation.

Reading

A third method of presentation is by reading. Unfortunately, most of us do not read aloud well. We tend to read in a dull monotone, producing a most uninteresting effect. We fumble over words, lose our place, miss punctuation marks, and such. Of course, many speakers overcome this problem and, with effort, you can too. But you would be wise not to attempt to read a speech until you have become a proficient reader.

Consideration Of Personal Aspects

A preliminary step to good speech making is to analyze yourself as a speaker, In oral presentations you, the speaker, are essentially a part of the message. Your audience takes in not only the words you communicate but what they sce in you. And what they see in you can significantly affect the mcanings that develop in their minds. Thus, you should carefully evaluate your personal effect on the message you present. You should do whatever you can to detect and overcome short comings and to sharpen any strengths.

Although the following summary of four characteristics may prove useful, you probably know them from experience. The chances are you can casily recognize the good and bad qualities. To some extent, the problem is recognizing these characteristics, or lack of them, in yourself . To a greater extent, it is doing something about improving your bad characteristics when you recognize them. The following review should help you pinpoint these problem areas and give you some practical suggestions on how to overcome them.

CONFIDENCE. A primary characteristic of effective oral reporting is confidence. This includes your confidence in yourself and your audience's confidence in you. Actually, the two are complementary, for your confidence in yourself tends to produce an image that gives your audience confidence in you. Similarly, your audience's confidence in you can give you a sense of security, thereby making you more confident of your ability.

Typically, you earn your audience's confidence over periods of association. But there are things you can do to project an image that invites confidence. For example, you can prepare your presentation diligently and practice it thoroughly. Such careful preliminary work will give you confidence in yourself. Having confidence leads to more effective communication, which in turn builds confidence in your listener's mind. Another thing you can do to gain confidence is check your physical appearence carefully. Unfair and illogical as it may be, certain styles of dress and hair create strong images in people's minds.

Thus, if you want to communicate effectively, you should analyze the audience you seek to reach. You should work to develop the physical appearance that will project an image in which your audience can have confidence. Yet another suggestion is simply to talk in strong, clear tones. Such tones do much to project an image of confidence. Although most people can do little to change their natural voices, they can try to add sufficient volume.

SINCERITY. Your listeners will be quick to detect insincerity in you. When they do, they are likely to give little weight to what you say. On the other hand, sincerity is a valuable aid to conviction, especially if the audience has confidence in your ability. What you can do to project an image of sincerity is clear. You must be sincere. Pretense of sincerity rarely succeeds.

THOROUGHNESS. Thoroughness in your presentation generally will make your message better received than scanty or hurried coverage. Thorough coverage gives the impression that you have taken time and care, and such an impression tends to make the message believable. But you can overdo thoroughness. If you present the information in too much detail , your listeners may become lost in a sea of information. Selecting the important information, of course, that you use good judgment. You must place yourself in your listener's shoes and ask yourself just what they do and do not need to know.

FRIENDLINESS. A speaker who projects an image of friendliness has significant advantage in communicating. People simply like people who are friendly and are more receptive to what they say. Like sincerity, friendliness is difficult to pretend. It must be honest if it is to be effective. But with most people friendliness is honest, for most people want to be friendly. Some just are unable to project the desired firendly image. With a little self-analysis and some mirrior watching or video taping as you practice speaking, you can find ways to improve the friendliness of your image.

These are but some of the characteristics that should aid you as a speaker. There are others, such as interest, enthusiasm, origniality, and flexibility. But those mentioned here are the most significant and the ones most speakers need to work on. Through self-analysis and dedicated effort to improve, you can enhance your speaking image.

AUDIENCE ANALYSIS

One requirement of good speech making is to know your audience. You should study your audience before and during the presentation

PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS

In analysizing your audience before the speech, you should search for any audience characteristics that will affect your presentation. For example, size of audience is likely to influence how formal or informal you make your speech. The audience's personal characteristics also can affect how you make your speech. Characteristics such as age, sex, education, experience, and knowledge of subject matter can determine how you present your message-- choice of words, need for illustration, and level of detailed required. Just as in writing, you should adapt your speeches to your audiences, and knowing your audience is a first step in adaptation. 

Analysis during presentation

Your analysis should continue as you make the speech called feedback, this phase of audience analysis gives you information about how your listeners are receiving your words. With this informations, adjust your presentation to improve the communication result. Your eyes and ears will give feedback information. For example, facial expression will tell you how your listeners are reacting to your message. From smiles, blank stares, and movements, you will get an indication of whether they understand or agree with your message. You can detect from their sounds (or silence) whether they are listening. If questions are in order, you can learn directly how your message is coming across. In general, by being alert you can learn much from your audience. And what you learn can help you make a better speech

Apprearance And Bodily Actions

As your listeners hear your words, they are looking at you. What they see is part of the message, and it can have a very real effect on the success of your speech. What your audience sees, of course, is you. They also see what surrounds you. Thus in your efforts to improve the effects of your oral presentations, you should thoroughly understand the communication effects of what your listeners see.

The Communication Environment

Much of what your audience sees is all that surrounds you as you speak-----everything that tends to add to a general impression. This includes the physical things----- the stage, lighting, background, and such. Although not visual, a related influence here would be outside noises. For the best communcation results, the factors in your communication environment should not detract from your message; rather, they should contribute to good communication. Your own experience as a listener will tell you what is important.

Personal Appearance

Your personal appearance is part of the message your audience receives. Of course, you must accept your physical attributes, but few of us need be at a disadvantage with respect to appearance. All that is necessary is that you use what you have appropriately. Specifically, you should dress appropriately for the audience and the occasion. You should be clean and well groomed You should use facial and bodily movements to your advantage, as described in following paragraphs

POSTURE

Posture is likely to be the most obvious thing your audience sees in you. Even if listeners cannot be close cnough to detect facial expressions and eye movements, they can see the general form the body takes.

You probably think no one need tell you what good posture is. You know it when you see it. The trouble is that you are unlikely to see it in yourself. One solution is to have others tell you whether your posture needs improvement. Another is to practice speaking before a mirror or with videotape equipment In your efforts to improve your posture keep in mind what must go on within your body in order to form good posture Your body weight must be distributed in a comfortable and poised way consistent with the impression you want to make. You should keep your body erect without appearing stiff and comfortable without seeming limp. Your bearing should be poised, alert, and communicative. You should do all this naturally, the great danger with posture is appearing artificial,

WALKING. 

The way you walk before your audience also makes an impression on your listeners. A strong sure walk to the speaker's position gives an impression of confidence. Hesitant, awkward steps give the opposite impression. Walking about during the presentation can be good or bad, depending on how you do it. Some speakers use steps forward and to the side as a form of bodily gesture, especially to emphasize points. Too much walking, however, attracts attention to yourself and detracts from the message. You should hold your walking to a minimum, using it only when you are reasonably sure of its effects. 

FACIAL EXPRESSIONS. 

Probably the most apparent and communicative bodily movements are facial expressions. The problem is that you may unconsciously use facial expressions that convey unintended meanings. For example, a frightened speaker may tighten the jaw unconsciously and begin to grin. The effect may be an ambiguous image that detracts from the entire communication effort. A smile, grimace, or puzzled frown conveys a clear message. Without question, they are effective communication devices, and you should use them.

Equally important is eye contact. The eyes have long been considered "Mirrors of the soul" and inform most observers about your sincerity, goodwill and flexibility. Some listeners tend to shun speakers who refuse to look at them. On the other hand, moderate eye contact tends to show that you have a genuine interest in your audience.

GESTURES. 

Like posture, gestures add to the message you communicate. Just what they add, however, is hard to say. They have no definite or clear-cut meanings. A clenched fist, for example certainly adds emphasis to a strong point. But it can also show defiance, make a threat, or signify support for a cause. And so it is with other gesturos. They register vague meanings.

Although they have vague meanings, gestures are strong. They are natural aids to speaking. It appears natural, for example, to emphasize a plea with plams up and to show disagreement with plams down. Raising first one hand and then the other reinforces a division of points. Slicing the air with the hand shows several divisions. Although such gestures generally are clear, we do not all use them in the same manner.

 In summary, it should be clear that you can use bodily movements to help your speaking. Which movements you should use, however, is hard to say. They are related to personality, physical makeup and the size and nature of the audience. A speaker appearing before a formal group generally use relatively few bodily actions. A speaker appearing before an informal audience should use more. What you should use on a given occasion is a matter for your best judgment.

Use Of Voice

Good voice is an obvious requirement of good speaking. Like bodily movements, the voice should not hinder the listener's concentration on the message. More specifically, the voice should not detract attention from the message. Voices that cause such difficulties generally fall into, four areas of fault : 

(1) Lack of pitch variation, 

(2) lack of variety in speaking speed, 

(3) lack of emphasis by variation in volume, and 

(4) unpleasant voice quality.

Lack of Pitch Variation. Speakers who talk in monotones are unlikely to hold their listeners' interest for long. Becuase most voices are capable of wide variations in pitch, the problem usually can be corrected. Most often the failure to vary pitch is a matter of habit----of voice patterns developed over years of talking without being aware of effect.

Lack of Variation in Speaking Speed. Determining how fast to talk is a major problem. As a general rule, you should present the easy parts of the message at a fairly brisk rate and hard-to-understand information at a slower pace. The reason for varying the speed of presentation should be apparent. Easy information presented slowly is irritating; hard information presented rapidly may be difficult to understand.

A problem related to speaking pace is the incorrect use of pauses. Of course, pauses used at the appropriate time and place are effective. When properly used, they emphasize the upcoming subject matter and are effective in gaining attention. But frequent, arbitrary pauses are irritating and break the listener's concentration. The error is compounded when the speaker fills in the pauses with uh's and meaningless you know's and OK's.

Lack of Vocal Emphasis. A secret of good speaking is to give words their due emphasis by varying the manner of speaking. You can do this by 

(1) Varying the pitch of your voice, 

(2) Varying the pace of your presentation, and 

(3) Varying the volume of your voice. Because the first two techniques have been discussed, only the last requires comment.

You must talk loudly enough for all of your audience to hear, but not too loudly. Regardless of group size, however, variety in force is good for interest and emphasis. It produces contrast, which is one way to emphasize the subject matter. Some speakers incorrectly believe that the only way to gain emphasis is to get louder and louder. But you can also show emphasis by going from loud to soft; the contrast provides the emphasis. Again variety is the key to making your voice more effective.

Unpleasant Voice Quality 

It is hard factof communication that some voices are more pleasing than others. Fortunately, most voices are reasoanably pleasant. But some are raspy, nasal, or in some other way unpleasant. Although therapy often can improve such voices, some speakers must live with what they have. But by concentrating on variations in pitch, speed of delivery, and volume, one can make even the most unpleasant voice effective.

Improvement through Self-Analysis.

 You can overcome most of the foregoing voice problems through self-analysis. With today's recording technology, it is easy to hear yourself talk. Since you know good speaking when you hear it, you should be able to improve your own presentation.

USE OF VISUAL AIDS

The spoken word is severely limited in communicating. Sound exists for a brief moment and is gone. If the listener misses the message, there may be no chance to hear it again. Because of this limitation, speeches often need strong visual support-----charts, tables, chalk boards, film, and such. Visual aids may be as vital to a speech's success as the words.

Proper Use of Design. 

Effective visual aids draw from the message. They should fit the one speech and the one audience. In selecting visual aids,you should search through the presentation for topics that appear vague or confusing. Whenever a picture or other form of visual aid will help clear up vagueness, you should use one. Visual aids are truly a part of your message, and you should look upon them as such.

After you have decided that a topic deserves visual help, you determine the form the help should take-----that is, should it be a chart, a diagram, a picture, or what? You should base your decision primarily on the question of which form communicates best. As simple and obvious as this point may appear, people violate it all too often. They select visual aids appearance and drama than for communication effect.

Forms to Consider. Because no one form is best for all occasions, should have a flexible attitude toward vasual aids. You should know the good and bad qualities of each and how to use each effectively.

In selecting visual aids, you should keep in mind the types available. Primarily, you will consider the various forms of photographed or drawn illustrations-- charts, graphs, tables, diagrams and pictures. Each may be displayed in various ways----by slide, overhead or opaque projector; by flipchart; by easel display, on a chalk board; on a felt board; and so on. Each of these display forms has its strengths and weaknesses. Visual aids also take the form of motion pictures, models, samples, demonstrations, and the like.

Techniques for Using Visual Aids. Visual aids uaually carry key parts of the message. Thus, they are points of emphasis in your presentation. You blend them with your words to communicate the message. How you do this is to some extent an individual matter, for techniques vary--so much, infact, that it would be hard to present them meaningfully. However, here is a list of do's and dont's :

1. Make certain everyone in the audience can see the visual aid. Too many or too- light lines on a chart, for example, can be hard to see. Too small an illustration will be meaningless to those in the back of the audience.

2. Explain the visual aid if there is any likelihood that it will be misunderstood.

3. Organize the visual aids as a part of the presentation. Fit them into the plan.

4. Emphasize the visual aids. Point to them with bodily action and with words.

5. Talk to the audience, not to the visual aids. Look at the visual aids only when the audience should look at them.

6. Avoid blocking the listeners' view of the visual aids. Make certain that lecterns, pillars, charts, and such do not block any one's view.

Take care not to stand in any one's line of vision.

Summary Of Speaking Practices

The foregoing review of business speaking is selecting for the subject is broad. This review has covered the high points especially those that you can easily transfer into practice. Perhaps even more practical is the following list of what to do and not to do in speaking.

1. Organize the speech so that it leads the listeners' throughts logically to the conclusion.

2. Move surely and quickly to the conclusion. Do not leave a conclusion dangling, repeat unnecessarily, or appear unable to close. 

3. Use language specifically adapted to the audience.

4. Articulate clearly, pleasantly, and with proper emphasis. Avoid mumbling and overuse of ah, er, uh, and so forth.

5. Speak correctly, using accepted grammar and pronunciation.

6. Maintain an attitude of alertness, displaying appropriate enthusiasm and confidence.

7. Employ body language to best advantage. Use it to emphasize points and to assist in communicating concepts and ideas.

8. Avoid stiff body actions. 

9. Look your listeners in the eye, and talk directly to them.

10. Avoid excessive movements, fidgeting, and other signs of nervousness.

11. Punctuate the presentation with reference to visual aids. Make them a part of the report story.

12. Even when faced with unfair opposition, keep your temper. To lose your temper is to lose control of the presentation.

ORAL REPORTING

A special form of speech is the oral report. You are more likely to make oral reports than speeches in business, and oral reports you make are likely to be important. Unfortunately, most of us have had little experience and even less instruction in oral reporting. Thus, the following review should be valuable.

Definition of Oral Reports

In its broadest sense, an oral report is any presentation of factual information using the spoken word. A business oral report logically limits coverage to factual business information. By, this defiintion an oral business report covers much of the information exchanged in the daily conductof business. It varies widely in formality. Atone extreme, it covers the most routine and informal reporting situations. At the other, it includes. highly formal presentations. Because the more informal exchanges are little more than routine conversations, the present section emphasize the more formal ones. Clearly, these are the reports requiring the most care and skill.

Differences Between Oral And Written Reports

Oral reports are much like written reports; thus, there is little need to repeat most of the previous material on report. Instead, we shall focus on differences. Three in particular stand out.

Visual Advantages of the Written Word. 

The first major difference between oral and written reports is that the latter permit greater use of the visual aids to communication. With writing, you can use paragraphing to show the reader the structure of the message and to make the thought units standout. In addition, you can use punctuation to show relationships, subordination and qualification of information. These techniques improve the communication effect of the entire message.

Oral presentations, on the other hand, permit none of these techniques. Of course, you can use techniques specific to oral communication, such as inflection, pauses, volume emphasis, and changes in delivery rate. Depending on the situation, both oral and written techniques are effective in aiding communication. But they do differ.

Reader Control of Written Presentation. 

A second difference between oral and written reporting is that in a written report your readers control the pace of the communication. They can pause, reread, change their rate of reading, or stop as they choose. Since the readers set the pace, even the most difficult writing can communicate. When receiving an oral report, however, listeners cannot control the pace of the presentation. They must grasp the intended meaning as the speaker chooses to present the words. Because of this limiting factor, good oral reporting must be relatively simple. 

Emphasis on Correctness in Writing 

A third difference between oral and written reporting is in the degree of correctness each stresses. Because your written work is likely to be carefully inspected, you will work for a high degree of correctness; that is, you will likely follow the recognized rules of grammar, punctution, sentence structure, and so on. When you present an oral report, on the other hand, you may be more lax in following these rules. For one, your work is not being recorded for others to inspect at their leisure. For another, oral communication standards of correctness are less rigid.

Other differences exist, of course, but these are the most significant ones. They should serve as foundations on which to explain the tecnhiques of oral reporting.

Planning The Oral Report

As with written reports, planning is a logical first step in your work on oral reports. For short, informal reports, of course, planning may be minimal. But for more formal presentations, particularly those involving audiences of more than one, proper planning is likely to be as involved as that for a comparable written report.

Determination of Report Objective. Your first step in planning an oral report is to determine your objective. In this step you should state the report goal in clear, concise language just as you would for a written report. Then you should clearly state the factors involved in achieving this goal. These steps will guide you to the information you must gather and to the frame work around which to build your presentation.

In the process of determining your goal, you must be aware of your general objective---that is, you must decide on your general purpose in making the presentation. Is it to persuade? To inform? To recommend? Your decision here will have a major influence on your development of the material for presentation and perhaps even on the presentation itself.

Organization of Content. Your procedure for organizing oral reports is similar to that for written reports. You have the choice of either the direct or indirect order. Even so, the same information presented orally and in writing is not necessarily presented in the same way. Time pressure, for example, may justify direct presentation for an oral report. The same report problem presented in writing might be best arranged in the indirect order. A reader in a hurry can always skip; to the report's conclusion or ending. The listener does not have this option.

Although oral reports may use either the direct or indirect order, the indirect is by for the more widely used as well as the more logical. Because your audience is unlikely to know the problem well, you will need some introductory comments to prepare them to receive the message. You may also need introductory words to arouse interest, stimulate curiosity, or impress the audience with the subject's importance. The main goal of the introductory remarks is to state the purpose, define unfamiliar terms, explain limitations describe scope, and generally cover all the introductory subjects.

In the body of the oral report, you should develop the goals you have set. Here too there is much similarity with the written report. Division of subject matter into comparable parts, logical order, introductory, paragraphs, concluding paragraphs, and such are equally important with both forms.

Conclusion

The major difference in organization between the written and oral report is in the ending. Both forms may end with a conclusion, recommendation, summary, or a combination of the three. But the oral report is likely to have a final summary tacked on regardless of whether it has a conclusion or recommendation. In a sense, this final summary serves the purpose of an executive summary by bringing together all the really important informatiion, analyses, conclusions, and recommendations in the report. It also serves to assist the memory by placing added emphasis on the points that should stand out.

Refrence Reading-

Ray, R. (1997). Communication Today: Understanding Creative Skill. India: Himalaya Publishing House.